Contents

Acknowledgements
Abstract
Résumé
1. Introduction
- 1.1. Outputs of the project
  - 1.1.1. The PISA 2021 ICT framework
  - 1.1.2. The PISA 2021 ICT questionnaire
- 1.2. The process
  - 1.2.1. The expert group
  - 1.2.2. The cognitive labs
  - 1.2.3. Quality assurance
2. Lessons from previous PISA cycles
- 2.1. A rapid but unequal expansion of ICTs
- 2.2. A fast-changing ICT environment: From digital resources to digital practices
  - 2.2.1. Evolution of digital technologies
    - Relevance of ICT resources
    - Covering software and online resources
  - 2.2.2. Evolution of digital practices
- 2.3. ICT use and students’ cognitive outcomes
  - 2.3.1. A bell-shaped relationship between ICT use and students’ cognitive outcomes
  - 2.3.2. Those indecisive results require updating the questionnaire
3. Summary of the PISA 2021 ICT Framework
4. Upgrading the ICT questionnaire items for PISA 2021
5. Lessons for the future development of ICT questions in PISA
References